Kudmi community Research paper 2
चलिए थोड़ा समझते है #कुड़मी जनजाति के संबंध मे विभिन्न विद्वानो की राय तथा स्थिति को।साथ ही साथ #कुड़मी वनाम #कुर्मी की विभेद को-चुकि अंग्रेजी मे "ड़"के लिए कोई अक्षर नही होती है, इसलिए छोटानागपुर के कुड़मी के लिए अधिकांश विद्वानो ने #hard-r तथा बाहरी कुर्मी के लिए #soft-r व्यवहार किए है।ये #hard-r "ड़"के लिए लिखा गया था।--
1. Indian Succession Act, 1865(X of 1865), No-550, the tribes known as the Mundas, Oraons, Hos, Bhumij, Kharias, Ghasis, Gonds, Kandhs, Korwas, Kurmis, Male Saurias and Pans, dwelling in the province of Bihar and Orissa have customary rules of succession and inheritance incompatible with the provisons, and it is inexpedient of apply the provisions of that Act to the number of those tribes.
2. 1871 की "Report on the Census of Bengal " की " पृष्ट-174 की अनुच्छेद- 61मे - Colonel Dalton mentions some Jhari Kurmis or Kurmis of the woods , in Chota Nagpore, who are said to worship strange Gods”.
3. 1872 को "Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal"- की पृ-317की धारा-5 मे उल्लेख है- “In the Province of Chutia Nagpur, the ancestors of the people now called Kurmis appear to have obtained a footing among the aboriginal tribes at a very remote period”.
4. 1891 की " District Census Report of Chota Nagpur Division" की पृ-4अनुच्छेद-16 मे उल्लेख है कि-“The Kurmis of Hazaribagh, as seem to be testified by their physiognomy, are not the Aryan Kurmis of Bihar. They much resemble the Santhals, and it would, in many cases, be almost impossible to distinguish a representative Kurmi from a representative Santhal”
इसके अलावे इसी रिपोर्ट की पृ-13 ,40नम्वर अनुच्छेद मे उल्लेख की गयी है- “Among the lowest classes those who eat the uncleanest meat or food are considered the lowest. I have purposely omitted to mention above the few aboriginal tribes or castes not yet Hinduized. They are the Kurmis, Muras, Bhumijs, Santhals, Rajwars, and Bhuiyas”.
इस रिपोर्ट की पृ-13 अनुच्छेद 41मे उल्लेख है कि- “There is a distinction between the Kurmis of Chota Nagpur and the Kurmis of Bihar. The physical formation and features of the two classes are different. The Kurmis of Chota Nagpur are probably of Dravidian descent, and are less respectable than the Kurmis of Bihar. In Bihar a Brahman will take water from the hands or the Bihar Kurmi, but no Brahman in Manbhum will take water from the hands of a Kurmi”.
5. E.A.Gait लिखित "Census of India 1901: The lower province of Bengal and their Feudatories" की प्रथम खंड की पृष्ट 393,अनुच्छेद-646मे उल्लेख है- “As explained elsewhere the Kurmis of Bihar are an entirely separate caste from the Kurmis of Chota Nagpur. The latter are found mainly in Manbhum and are more pronouncedly Dravidian than the homonymous caste of Bihar. They havea dialect of their own, known as Kurmali ,a mixture of Bengali and Bihari, here and there a few aboriginal words.The two communities should in theory be distinguished by the “r”, which is soft in one case and hard in the other, but in practice the rule is not observed, and both words are usually spelt exactly alike. They have therefore, perforce been shown under the same head.”
इस किताब की खंड-2की पृष्ट-235 मे लिखा है- “KURMI – Kurmi is the name of two distinct group: (1) An aboriginal tribe of Chota .Nagpur and Mayurbhanj who spell their name with a hard “r” and (2) of the well·known Hindu caste of Bihar who use a soft “ r”.It was I mpossible at the census to distinguish between the figures for each , but a reference to the locality in which enumeration will probably furnish a sufficiently good guide as to their relative strength”.
6. Sir George A Grierson लिखित "Linguistic Survey of India :1903, vol-5 की part-2की पृष्ट-145 मे कुडमाली भाषा के संबंध मे लिखा है कि- “ In Manbhum this languange is principally spoken by people of the Kurmi caste, who are numerous in the Districts of Chota Nagpur, and in the Orissa Tributary State of Mayurbhanja. They are an aboriginal tribe of Dravidian stock and should be distinguished from the Kurmis of Bihar who spell their name differently, with a smooth instead of a hard ‘r’. The two quite distinct tribes have been mixed up in the Census, but as their habitats are also distinct, the following figures may be taken as showing with considerable accuracy the number ofKurmis in the area under consideration. यहाँ उल्लेख किया जा सकता है कि- CNT Act, 1908, Bengal Act 6 of 1908: मे उल्लेखित है कि-दुसरी जनजातियो के साथ साथ कुडमी जनजाति को भी अपनी जमीन की सुरक्षा के समान अधिकार दिए जाते है।-
7. L.S.S.O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetters, Santhal Parganas:1910-पृ- 90 मे उल्लेख किया गया है कि- In Champa several races (the Mundas, Birhors,Kurmis and others) separated from what was, according to the traditions, till then the common Kharwar race”
8. 1910 ई0- L.E.B. Cobden Ramsay, Bengal Gazetters, Feudatory States of Orissa की 242 पृष्ट मे उल्लेख किया गया है कि-, “At present the aboriginal tribes are the Bhuiya, the Bathudi, Saonti, Juang, Kol, Kurmi, Santal, Gond, Khandwal, Khond, Savar and a small tribe of Pitas.”[page 223, Keonjhar State]. “The number of the principal aboriginal tribes who form 56·52 percent of the total population is as follows:-(1) Santal 185,149, (2) Ho or Kol 67,768, (3) Bhumij 56,157, (4) Kurmi 35,968.”
9. 1911 की Census of India- की प्रथम खंड की पृ- 512 ,अनुच्छेद- 1012(जो मुलतः बिहार उडिसा और सिक्किम के लिए है ,मे बोला गया है कि,- The Koiri and Kurmi are two great cultivating castes of Bihar, but the latter is also the name of an aboriginal tribe in Chota Nagpur and the Orissa States, who spell their name with a harder, whereas the Bihari castes use a soft “r”. It was impossible to distinguish between the spellings. and they have therefore been grouped together.”
इसके बाद-, 2, May, 1913, शुक्रवार , Government of India की secretary- W.S.Marris इस संबंध मे शिमला मे एक बैठक हुई थी एवं दुसरा दिन अर्थात 3 मई को प्रकाशित हुई-
" The Gazette of India". Gazette मे प्रकाशित- “ HOME DEPARTMENT NOTIFICATIONS, The 2nd May 1913
No. 550- whereas the tribes known as the Mundas, Oraons,Santhal, Hos, Bhumijs, Kharias, Ghasis, Gonds, Kandhs,Korwas, Kurmis, Malesaurias, and Pans, dwelling in the province of Bihar and Orissa have customary rules of succession and inheritance incompatible with the provisions of the Indian Succession Act, 1865 (X of 1865) and it is inexpedient to apply the provisions of this Act to the members of those tribes. In exercise of the powers conferred by Section 331 of the Indian Succession Act 1865 (X of 1865) the Governor General of Council is pleased to exempt all Mundas,Oraons, Santhals, Hos , Bhumis, Kharias, Ghasis, Goands, Kandhs, Korwas, Kurmis, Malesaurias, and Pans, dwelling in the province of Bihar and Orissa from the operation of the provisions of that Act.
10. 1917 की "Bihar and Orissa District Gazetteer Ranchi"- की पृ- 61 मे उल्लेख है कि-“The Kurmis include not only the Hindu cultivating caste but also the aboriginal tribe ofKurmi Mahtos, whose residence is chiefly in the Manbhum district, and also in Silli thana on the eastern border of the Ranchi district.”
11. Survey and settlement portion, Manbhum District by B.K.Gokhle, I.C.S, settlement of ficer of chhotonagpur की chapter 1की पृ- 12 की 22 वे पारा मे उल्लेखित है कि -The following castes are tribes such as kurmi, santal, Bauri, Bhumij, Bhunia, kora, kheria, oran, munda and ho.
12. 1921 की Census of India, Bengal की प्रथम खंड की पृ-356मे उल्लेख किया गया है कि -“Kurmi.-The Kurmis belong to two separate castes whose names should be spelt one with a hard “ r” and one with a soft “r”. The latter is a Bihar cultivating caste and the former an aboriginal tribe of the southern part of the ChotaNagpur plateau and Orissa States. It would, however have been impossible to separate the figures for the two as returned. and this has not been attempted either at this or at the former censuses. Midnapore contains 80,000 and Bankura nearly 20,000 Kurmis with an even balance of the sexes. These must almost all be the aboriginal tribe, which is indigenous to the western parts of Midnapore and the south-western parts of Bankura district.
13. 1925 ई0 को माननीय पटना उच्च के जज माननीय माईक फाॅरसन ने एक मामले के संबंध मी टीप्पनी की थी कि- ," he kurmi mahato of manbhum district are racially an aborginal tribe"
14. 1930 ई0 Indian Statutory Committee की Report की पृ- 362- aborigines के संबंध मे कहा गया है कि- Aborigines.-. Agaria, Asar, Bhogra, Bhuiya, Bhumij,Binjhia, Chero, Chik (Baraik), Ganda, Ghatwar, Ghasi,Gond, Ho, Juang, Kandh, Kharia, Karmali, Kharwar, Kisan,Kora, Korwa, Kurmi (of Chota Nagpur), Lohar (of Chota Nagpur)J Mahali, Mal Paharia, Munda, Pan, Oraon, Santal,Sauriya, Paharia, Tharu, Turi.”
15. J.H.Hutton, Census of India की प्रथम खंड कीपृ-507मे उल्लेख है-" The kurmis of Chotanagpur classified as Primitive Tribe".
16. 1931 ई0 को , All India Kurmi-kshatriya Association,किस तरह से अपनी कुत्सीत खेल को अंजाम दिया - W.G.Lacey, Census Of India, vol-vii की खंड-2 की पृ-291मे लिखा गया है कि- The ‘All India Kurmi-Kshatriya Association’ took up the cudgels on behalf of the KurmiMahtos, and stoutly affirmed that they and theKurmi-Kshatriyas of the western provinces are the same, proofs of which, if necessary, can be produced before the Government”. It must be confessed that, when invited to produce these proofs, the Association showed no great eagerness to respond and eventually took refuge in the following generalities which, besides being unsupported by evidence or illustration.
Sir George Grierson कृत Linguistic Survey of India की खंड-5 की पृ-292 मे उल्लेख की गयी है कि-an aboriginal tribe of Dravidian stock and should be distinguished from the Kurmis of Bihar who spell their name differently with a smooth instead of a hard ‘r’. These two quite distinct tribes have been mixed up in the census.” Many of these people speak a language of their own, commonly known as Kurmali,although, as Sir George Grierson points out, in Manbhum this language is not confined to the Kurmis alone but is spoken by people of other tribes also. In Bamra state, where it is spoken by undoubted aborigines, it is known as Sadri Kol. This language is a corrupted form of Magahi, but, to quote again from Sir George Grierson, “ in this belt Magahi is not the language of any locality. lt is essentially a tribal language”- just as Mal Paharia, a corrupted form of Bengali, is the language of the aboriginal tribe bearing that name. With regard to the spelling ofKurmi with a hard r, it has been verified from the local officials that this differentiation is observed still. It may possess real significance, but the general tendency in Chota Nagpur to make the ‘r’ hard is a circumstance that should be borne in mind.
Mr. Coupland, District Gazetteer of Manbhum(1910) की पृ- 292 मे उल्लेख है कि- the distinction between theKurmis of Bihar and those of Chota Nagpur,”which is now generally accepted, is exemplified in this district by the fact that marked traces of the characteristic Kolarian village system remain, the Mahto or village headman of the Kurmis corresponding exactly with the ‘Manjhi of the Santhals, the Sardar of the Bhumij and the Munda of the Ho races.” TheKurmi Mahtos are included among the tribes exempted from the Indian Succession Act. By a printing error the name appeared in the original notification (issued about 20 years ago) as ”Kurmi Mahto ” and in the revised notification which was issued very recently the word ” Kurmi“only is retained. There is no doubt that, until quite recent years, the two communities were agreed in repudiating any connection with one another. The Bihar contingent would commonly allude to their namesakes of Chota Nagpur as the “Kol-Kurmis “, and the latter were no less spirited in asserting their independent identity. Not only inter-marriage, but inter-dining was entirely out of the question. Even today, although it will presently be seen that these restrictions have been formally abolished by resolutions passed in solemn conclave, and although it is probably true that the Kurmis of Chota Nagpur no longer take the same pride in their ancestry that they used to do, no authentic case has come to notice of inter-marriage between the two peoples. The Superintendent of the Leper Hospital at Purulia writes that ” a Kurmiconstable from North Bihar at present resident in this hospital was very scornful when I suggested his eating with our local Kurmipatients.”
बाद मे 1931 की 8th December, बिहार सरकार की- Judicial Department notification, no-3563 मे उल्लेख की गयी है कि अन्य जनजातीयो के साथ साथ "कुड़मी" भी एक जनजाति है।
1931ई0को प्रकाशित- Census of India, vol-5, Bengal and Sikkim की पहली खंड की पृ-476 मे लिखा गया है कि- Kurmi –The returns under this head include both the Bihar cultivating caste and the aboriginal tribe whose name is spelt the same with the exception that the ” r” is soft. No attempt was made to distinguish between the two groups. The total number is 194,652 compared with 181,447 in 1921. As in that year considerably over one-half of them are found in Western Bengal and Midnapore actually contributes 85,711 to the total. None appear to have been returned under their tribal religion, although a number belonging to the aboriginal tribe were reported from Rajshahi during enumeration. In Midnapore they are generally known as Mahato, but this is a title also of Koiris and Kochhes and its use was discouraged. As with the Koiris the claim to be returned as Kurma- Kshattriyas was received not from any local body claiming that appellation but from an all-India Association.”
अब 1950 ई0को भारत की संविधान की रचना की गयी और सारे सबुत और प्रमाणो को नजर अंदाज करते हुए किस प्रकार "कुड़मी" जनजाति को जनजाति सूचि से बाहर रखने का कुचक्र रचा गया,और इसमे कैसे कैसे सफेदपोश शामिल थे???आश्चर्य होता है।अंग्रेजो ने ईसाईयत की जाल मे फॅसने से मनि करने की खुन्नस निकाली तो टाटा की नजर हमारी जमीन पर थी।कॅग्रेस के के कुछ रसुखदार नेता हमे दरकिनार कर राजनैतिक तथा आर्थिक रूप से किनारे करने की चाल चल रहे थे,जबकि हिन्दु महासभा कुडमी को जनजाति सूचि से बाहर रख छोटानागपुर मे हिन्दु जनसंख्या मे बढोतरी करना चाह रही थी।इन सबसे भी अधिक महत्व पुर्ण कारण थी -कुडमियो की जनसंख्या और इसके पास की अथाह जमीन।छोटानागपुर की खनिज की बेरोक टोक दोहन की मंशा और अपने चेहते बाहरी लोगो को छोटानागपुर मे स्थाई तौर पर वशाने के लिए जमीन और सबसे बडी संभावित झारखंड राज्य मे जनजातिय जनसंख्या को कम करने की धुर्तता भरी चाल ताकि झारखंड कभी भी 6ठी अनुसूचि की राज न बन सके। हॅलाकि इससे पहले ही भाषाई और संस्कृतिक रूप से एक रहने के बवायुद,कुड़मी बहुल पुरूलिया,मिदनापुर और बाँकुडा को प बंगाल मे,रायपुर और सुरगुंजा को छत्तासगढ मे और म्युरभंज क्योझर और सुन्दरगढ को उडिसा मे मिलाकर कुडमी को राजनैतिक रूप से कमजोर की जा चुकी थी।अब आगे देखते है-
1. 1951 की 15 फरवरी Government of India, Ministry of Home affairs की एक पत्र-( No.26/12/50-RG)-की पृ-5 मे लिखा गया है कि- There was a special enquiry conducted along with the 1931 census through India, on the basis of which the communities properly classifiable as tribe were distinguished from castes , among the former those which were properly classifiable as “Primitive Tribes” were listed.”
2. 1953ई0 Superintendent Asok Mitra, Census1951, Westbengal, The tribes and Castes of Westbengal की पृ- 79 ,अनुच्छेद - 48 लिखा है कि- “Kurmi –A very large cultivating caste of Upper India, Bihar,Chota Nagpur and Orissa. Their origin is obscure. Behar Kurmis are fairly good looking and Campbell and Dalton consider them Aryan in look. The Kurmis of Chhotonagpur, Manbhum and Orissa however can hardly be distinguished from a Bhumij or SantaI. The Santals consider the Kurmis to be descended from the same stock as their own and will eat cooked rice from them. The ChhotonagpurKurmis have many customs clearly tribal whereas Kurmis of Bihar are practically orthodox Hindus.
In Midnapur, Kurmis are giving up divorce and widow marriage.The religion of Behar Kurmisdiffers little from that of other Hindu castes of similar social standing. Brahmans serve them without stigma. They do not take any prohibited food and their social rank is respectable and Brahmans will take water from their hands. Social customs are like those of other Hindus of similar status except that in Gaya, unmarried persons of either sex are buried and not cremated. The Kurmis of Behar are excellent cultivators but as regards special crops they are not so skilful as the Koiris.
Chhotonagpnr Kurmi-The animistic beliefs characteristic of the Dravidian races are overlaid by the thinnest veneer of conventional Hinduism and the vague shapes of ghosts or demons who haunt the jungle and the rocks are the real powers to whom the average Kurmi looks for the ordering of his moral and physical welfare. Chief -among these are Bar Pahar, Garoar, Kinchakeswari, Boram Devi, Dakum Buri, etc. In Chhotonagpur Brahmans are either not employed or employed only on special occasions. But in Midnapur, Brahmans are called in on all social and religious occasions, but the Brahmans are degraded.
Special festivals are the Bandhana and Akhan Jatra. By abstaining from beef and pork, they have raised themselves a step higher than the Santhals and Oraons, but the fact that they eat fowl and field rats and indulge freely in spirituous liquor excludes them from the circle of castes from whose hands a Brahman will take water.”
2. 1957-58 ई0 Annual Report of the Tribal and Rural Department की report की पृ- 68 मे उल्लेख की गयी है कि- An asterisk mark against certain castes in the list denotes the castes ,races or tribes recognised as Scheduled Castes or Scheduled Tribes before the commencement of the Scheduled Castes or Scheduled Tribes Order (Amendment )Act 1956 And the Scheduled Castes or Scheduled Tribes Order (Modification ) Order 1956,but not so recognised now.”
3- 1963ई0 12 अप्रेल को माननीय- K.Ahamed, Mohari Mahato तथा Mokaram Mahato की मामले मे उल्लेख की कि--"Now it does not admit of the faintest doubt that the Kurmi-Mahtons of the Manbhum District are racially an aboriginal tribe. They are the most numerous community (whether tribe or caste) of that district from which they have overflowed into the neighbouring districts. They have no concern whatever except in the accent of name with the Dravido-Aryan agricultural and menial caste of Bihar proper.”
4. 1990 ई0- 1994 ई0- L.Luca Cavalli-Sforza, Paolo Menozzi and Alberto Piazza को Princeton University की The History and Geigraphy of Human Genes विभाग की एक DNAके संबंधे प्रतिवेदन मे पृ-474,अनुच्छेद-89मे साफ साफ उल्लेख की गयी है कि- Bhumij, Birhor, Dudh Kharia, Ho, Juang, Korku, Korwa, Kurmi Mahato, Munda, Pareng, Gadaba, Santal, Saora are Austric.
बाद मे 2014 ई0को Dr.Hrishikesh Panda ने एक मानवमिति "टास्क फोर्स" की गठन की थी।इस टास्क फोर्स की रिपोर्ट मे उल्लेख की गयी थी कि-
--Socio-economic ,including educational ,backwardness vis-à-vis the rest of the population of the State.
--Historical geographical isolation which may or may not exist today.
--Autonomous religious practices where the priests/disari/beju/ojha etc.arefrom the community ,though practising ‘Hindu way of life’ would not be a bar.
--Distinct language /dialect
--Presence of a core culture relating to life-cycle, marriage, songs, dances, paintings, folklore.
--Endogamy or marital relationship primarily with other Scheduled tribes. My fan page kudmi bandhu totemik describe these in a broad sector, I just limited these.ये सभी मानको को कुड़मी आज भी पुरी करते है।
2016 की CRI की(प बंगाल के संबंध मे)
Ethnographic Report की पृ- 20 मे बोला गया है कि- “Ethnographic study of the Kurmis of West Bengal suggests that these people have their distinct element of culture which is evidenced from their social organisation, marriage, rituals and religious practices. Totemistic clan structure and traditional organisation of social control of the Kurmis are the remnants of tribalism. Kurmali is considered as their mother tongue. …xxxxx…Backwardness among the Kurmis is significant as most of them are economically poor and depend only on wage earning activities.”अब विचार आप को करनी है कि हमे इस समस्या का समाधान हेतु किस रास्ते को अपनाना चाहिए।
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01. Date 27.7 .2023
Kudmi community DNa appx 6500 yr old
Details given below
Spoke to Sanjay Kumar who has better knoweldge about the M haplogroup and he sent me this report,
TARTU UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF BIOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY, INSTITUTE OF MOLECULAR AND CELL BIOLOGY, DEPARTMENT OF EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY
Mait Metspalu
COMMON MATERNAL LEGACY OF INDIAN CASTE AND TRIBAL POPULATIONS
M.Sc. Thesis
The excerpt from this report in brief which is for our purpose is as follows,
Five Indian populations (Lodha, Bhoksa, Tharu, Kanet and Kurmi) are surveyed here for mtDNA variation. The populations are chosen in order to compare mtDNA variation between geographical regions as well as on social axis. The dispute over indigenous inhabitants of South Asia has largely been an open question while tribals and Austro-Asiatic speakers in particular have most often collected the fame. Here we test this conjecture by comparing mtDNA lineages of Austro-Asiatic Lodha to those of other tribals and caste groups. Gene flow from adjacent geographical areas will be followed and defining new lineage groups will hopefully refine classification of Indian-specific mtDNA lineages.
The samples used in this study were collected from four scheduled tribes (Lodha n=56, Bhoksa n=23, Tharu n=36 and Kanet n=34) and one social community (Kurmi n=55) from West Bengal and Northern regions of India. (Fig. 9). Some of the samples, namely Bhoksa, Tharu, Kanet were sent to us as purified DNA and some (Lodha, Kurmi) as bloodstains. S. Mastana and S.S. Papiha kindly provided all the samples.
The Kanet are a tribal population in the Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh and make up most of the districts population. In (Singh 1997) all the inhabitants of the Kinnaur district are referred to as scheduled tribe Kinnaura, Kinnara or Kinnaurese. The two major social groups of the Kinnaura are the Khosia and the Beru. The Khosia 30 are Rajput and are also known as Kanet, Khash or Khasa. They own land and are agriculturists. The Kinnaura speak the Kinnauri dialect, which belongs to the Himalayan group of Tibeto-Burman family of languages. They use different local dialects of the IndoAryan language Himachili for inter-group communication. The Kinnaura religion is an admixture of Buddhism and Hinduism. The traditional occupations of the Kinnaura are agriculture, trade and sheep rearing, which they continue till today. ~70% of the workers are cultivators. The total population of the Kinnaura is ~48000 (1981 census). (Singh 1997) pp. 533-534
The Lodha are a tribal population living mostly in western part of Midnapore district of West Bengal were they are also known as Kheria and Kharia. To a lesser extent they are also present in the Mayurbhanj and Baleswar districts of Orissa. The total population of the Lodha is ~59000 (1981 census). Their mother tongue, lodha, is akin to Savara, an Austro-Asiatic language. They are fluent in Bengali, which they use to communicate with other communities (the Lodhas in Orissa also speak Oriya). Traditionally the Lodhas have provided themselves by forest dwelling, hunting and gathering (grass-rope making in Orissa). Of the 40% of workers among the Lodhas 40% are engaged in forestry, fishing, hunting, etc., and another 40% are agricultural labourers. In Orissa the per cent of agriculturists is higher. Vast majority of the Lodhas are Hinduists. ~17% claim to be Christians. (Singh 1997) pp. 694-697 The Bhoksa are a Himalayan community (scheduled tribe) that inhabits the terai* areas of Bijnor district of Uttar Pradesh and Dehradun, Nainital and Pauri Garhwal districts of Uttaranchal. In Dehradun district they are also referred to as Mehre or Mehra. They speak Hindi and write in Devanagari script. The total population of the Bhoksa is ~32000 (1981 census). The traditional and primary occupations of the Bhoksa are agriculture and animal husbandry. Over 99% of the Bhoksa are Hinduists. (Singh 1997) pp. 146-149 * a belt of marshy land at the foot of the Himalayas mountains: moderate climate, dense to thin forests and medium rainfall, also tarai 31 The Tharu are a well-studied community (scheduled tribe) of Uttar Pradesh who live close to the border of Nepal, and are widely dispersed in the Districts of Baharaich, Gonda, Gorakhpur, Kheri (Lakhimpur) and Nainital district of Uttaranchal. Their total population in India is ~96000 (1981 census). ~99% of the Tharus are rural. Most of the Tharus live in southern Nepal (terai areas) where they number about 720,000. The Tharu trace their origin to Rajput forefathers, who fled from the great battle described in the epic Mahabharata. (For popular article on the Tharus see also: National Geographic Magazine, September 2000). They inhabit the terai areas. Their mother tongue Tharu belongs to the central group of the Indo-Aryan family of languages. They use Hindi for inter-group communication and write in Devanagari script. The Tharu are a landholding community with individual proprietorship of land. They did hunt and gather food in the past, but presently they depend on settled cultivation. Although nearly 100% of the Tharus are Hinduists, they use alcoholic beverages and eat beef. Despite their patrilineal social system, women have property rights greatly exceeding those recognized in Hindu society. (Singh 1997) pp. 1137-1140 Apart from West Bengal
The Kurmi are also concentrated in Bihar and UP where they represented respectively 3.6 and 3.5% of the population in 1931. The Kurmi generally work as cultivators and are looked at as middle caste peasants but they claim to be Kshatriyas.
Treatment of bloodstains Several discs of 3 mm diameter were cut from the bloodstains on Guthrie cards. The discs were then vortexed in 1 ml of deionised water for 30 minutes (modification from (Makowski et al. 1995). Following the aspiration of the water, the discs were incubated in 100µl methanol for 15 minutes, after what the methanol was removed. Next, 100µl 5mM NaOH/NaCl mix and 20µl EDTA (end concentration 0,2 mM) was added. Mineral oil was added to protect the sample from evaporation while heating at 100ºC for 10 minutes. Then the samples were placed on ice. Method was developed in our department by Jüri Parik. All the samples were kept at -20ºC. 32 PCR conditions Various regions of the mtDNA were amplified using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (Saiki et al. 1988): Hypervariable Segments I and II (HVS-I HVS-II) in D-loop and different RFLP sites over mitochondrial DNA coding region. PCR was carried out with the thermocycler “Biometra UNO II” usually in total volume of 15-20µl.
It is often speculated that the tribal populations (especially the Austro-Asiatic speakers in the east and Dravidian-speaking tribes in the south) of India might be the relics of the first wave of the anatomically modern human immigration to India (Papiha 1996; Cavalli-Sforza et al. 1994). So far, mtDNA studies have revealed no grounds for such speculations. The lineages present in tribals fit well into the framework of the variation seen in non-tribal groups (Kivisild et al. 1999a) (Kivisild et al. manuscript in preparation). It has to be noted, though, that no detailed mtDNA study on Austro-Asiatic speaking tribals has been published yet.
The Lodha are a tribal population living mostly in western part of Midnapore district of West Bengal were they are also known as Kheria and Kharia. To a lesser extent they are also present in the Mayurbhanj and Baleswar districts of Orissa. The total population of the Lodha is ~59000 (1981 census). Their mother tongue, lodha, is akin to Savara, an Austro-Asiatic language. They are fluent in Bengali, which they use to communicate with other communities (the Lodhas in Orissa also speak Oriya). Traditionally the Lodhas have provided themselves by forest dwelling, hunting and gathering (grass-rope making in Orissa). Of the 40% of workers among the Lodhas 40% are engaged in forestry, fishing, hunting, etc., and another 40% are agricultural labourers. In Orissa the per cent of agriculturists is higher. Vast majority of the Lodhas are Hinduists. ~17% claim to be Christians.
Apart from West Bengal the Kurmi are also concentrated in Bihar and UP where they represented respectively 3.6 and 3.5% of the population in 1931. The Kurmi generally work as cultivators and are looked at as middle caste peasants but they claim to be Kshatriyas.
Table 3 presents the frequencies of the mtDNA haplogroups found in the studied five populations (see also supplementary material for full data table). For better characterisation of spatial differences in mtDNA lineages distribution in India, the populations were grouped by their geographical origin: Kanet from Himachal Pradesh, Tharu and Bhoksa from northern districts of Uttar Pradesh and Uttaranchal as a northern group; Lodha and Kurmi from West Bengal as an eastern group. As already established in several studies (Passarino et al. 1996a; Passarino et al. 1996b; Bamshad et al. 1997; Kivisild et al. 1999a; Bamshad et al. 2001), the dominant mtDNA lineage cluster in Indian populations is the Asian-specific M defined by gains of DdeI and AluI restriction sites at np 10394 and 10397, respectively. An average frequency of haplogroup Hg M in the studied populations was 76%, while the eastern group showed considerably higher Hg M frequency than the northern one, 93% and 57%, respectively. All the Lodhas included in this study fall into Hg M. It should be noted, however, that in another study where 32 Lodha mtDNAs were typed for Hgs M and U, the corresponding frequencies were 82% and 18% (Roychoudhury et al. 2000).
In concordance with previous reports, the subclusters of Hg M found in our study were largely Indian-specific (Quintana-Murci et al. 1999; Kivisild et al. 1999b; Bamshad et al. 2001). Eastern Asian M derivates C, D and E, accounted for only 3% each in the Kanet population. Among the Tharus the frequencies for Hgs C and D were 3% and 6%, respectively. It is worthwhile noting that the populations from West Bengal lacked eastern Asian Hg M varieties completely. This is also true for the upper cast people from West Bengal (our unpublished data).
Of the Hg M subclusters, M3 is the most widespread in the populations under study – the Kurmi being the only ones lacking this haplogroup (see Table 3). M4a and M6 discriminate the northern and eastern populations, as M4a is present only in the former and M6 only in the latter. This segregation is not maintained when additional data of many different Indian populations is included – both M4 and M6 have representatives from many populations of different social rank, geographical origin and linguistic background (our unpublished data).
A number of Hg M lineages could not be ascribed to any of the defined Hg M subhaplogroups. The greedy network (Bandelt et al. 2000) based on HVS-I sequence variation of these lineages (M*) (Fig. 11) reveals an extensive diversity, in particular in the northern populations. The Lodhas show the least amount of variation and fall into only a few (8) haplotypes. In general, this analysis does not reveal any strictly population- or region-specific lineage groups. There is only one lineage with considerable length (substitutions at nps 16147, 16189, 16243, 16278, 16362) what is present only among one population, the Kurmis. Given the seemingly starlike topology of the tree (Fig.11), it was possible to calculate the coalescence time for these lineages which yielded 62,000 ± 6500 years BP. Coalescence estimate of 40,000 ± 2000 years BP. for M* lineages was calculated from a much large dataset including 360 individuals (Mountain et al. 1995; Bamshad et al. 1996; Kivisild et al. 1999a) (our unpublished data). The large contrast in these estimates is most likely caused by demographic histories of the Kurmis and Lodhas. Probably because of a bottleneck event and/or by a founder effect, most of them harbour only few haplotypes. This, in turn, disrupts the starlike topology of the tree. Indeed, when Lodhas and Kurmis are excluded from the expansion time calculation, the result becomes close to that observed with the large dataset, being 43,000 ± 7300.
A vast majority of the Hg U lineages in the studied populations belong to two Indianspecific varieties - U2i and U7 (Kivisild et al. 1999a). The frequency of Hg U lineages is higher among the northern populations - 16%, while that of the eastern group is only 5% (8% if data of (Roychoudhury et al. 2000) is included). This is because the Lodhas included into this study lack Hg U. European-specific U4 and U5 are both represented by only one individual from the Tharu and Kanet, respectively.
Based on genetic studies of classical markers (summarised in (Papiha 1996), linguistic data and archaeology, peopling of India is usually discussed bearing in mind just two putative large-scale immigration waves of anatomically modern humans to the subcontinent. Firstly, the demic diffusion of Dravidic speakers coinciding with the arrival of several varieties of wheat and other cereals some 8000 – 9000 years ago from the Fertile Crescent (Diamond 1997; Renfrew 1989). Secondly, a more widely discussed scenario is in a presumed invasion of nomadic Indo-Aryan tribes around 4000 BP either from the west or from the Central Asian steppes in the north. Literature about the latter is huge and still growing, often mixed with clearly political rhetoric. However, both theories leave completely open the question about the “indigenous”, pre-Neolithic inhabitants of India. In some papers the present-day tribal populations (especially the Austro-Asiatic speakers) of India are considered to be descendants of these original inhabitants of South Asia (Papiha 1996; Cavalli-Sforza et al. 1994; Gadgil 1997).
To this date no Austro-Asiatic speaking Indian tribal population has been studied in detail for mtDNA variation. The Lodha, Munda and Santal tribals have been typed for the frequencies of haplogroups M, U, A and D (Roychoudhury et al. 2000). These results showed that in haplogroup frequencies Austro-Asiatic tribals are composed as the rest of Indians - of Hgs M and U.
Here we analysed mtDNA sequence variation in one of the Austro-Asiatic speaking tribals – the Lodhas – in detail. It became evident that the Lodhas have gone through demographic bottleneck and/or represent a population with strongly manifested narrow founder effect and, in result, exhibit only a limited extent of variation in their maternal lineages. Nevertheless, the Hg M lineages present among the Lodhas fit well into the framework of Indian varieties of this super-cluster of human mtDNA. Moreover, all the Hg M and U lineages found in the studied four tribal populations, with the exception of one Kurmi lineage, have representatives in a wide range of different Indian populations, described earlier by us and others (Mountain et al. 1995; Kivisild et al. 1999a; Kivisild et al. 2000) (our unpublished data). The mtDNA data, therefore, suggest a common origin for Indian tribal and caste groups. This may seem 42 to be in conflict with earlier interpretations by i) Das and colleagues for example, who demonstrated by frequency distributions of classical genetic markers that IndoEuropean and Austro-Asiatic speaking tribals showed little genetic affinity (Das et al. 1996) and to ii) overall conclusion of S. S. Papiha in the review of classical genetic studies of Indian populations, that tribal populations are in general well differentiated from the nontribal castes or communities (Papiha 1996). However, these differences are likely due to different approaches used: allele frequency based statistics and genealogical approach.
Our mtDNA-based analyses do not support the idea that tribals or Austro-Asiatic speakers in particular, are genetically different from the cast groups of India in principle. Rather, the differences (even significant) can be attributed to genetic drift (including bottlenecks, founder effects etc.), changing frequencies but not lineage clusters (clades), which the tribal populations share with the rest of Indian populations – and, as a rule, do not share with other Eurasian or African populations. Nevertheless, we admit that additional data on other Austro-Asiatic speakers of India and beyond is needed to draw more detailed picture of their genetic affinities within India and with contiguous areas.
In contrast to that, studied by us eastern Indian tribal populations did not show any admixture with East Asians whatsoever. For the Lodha and Kurmi, their particular demographic histories could be indicative: both populations show only a little variation and, therefore, they might have lost the East Asian lineages. Yet, most likely they never had East Asian lineages at substantial frequencies as, given the number of lineages left among these populations (30 haplotypes out of 111 samples examined), the probability that they have lost all East Asian haplotypes by means of drift is negligible. The argument of lineage loss is also not applicable to explain the lack of East Asian maternal lineages among the upper cast sample of West Bengal (our unpublished data), who show no sign of severe bottleneck in their demographic history. High population density over a long time period, making the region less prone to the effect of immigration could, among other interpretations, serve as an explanation.
The mtDNA lineages arising from the central node of Hg M that have so far not been assigned to any subcluster of Hg M, form the M* lineages. As the Lodhas and Kurmis did not show starlike topology on the greedy network of M* (Fig. 11), they had to be excluded from the coalescence time calculation. Based on the remaining data of Tharus, Bhoksas and Kanets the expansion time for the Indian M* was estimated as 43,000 ± 7300 BP. To further narrow the error margins, a dataset of 362 M* lineages 44 covering different areas and socio-cultural backgrounds of India, was included and in result, expansion time of 40000 ± 2000 years BP was found. Analyses yielding somewhat or significantly earlier Indian Hg M coalescence estimates, ranging from ~47,000 – ~65,000 BP (Kivisild et al. 1999b) and (Mountain et al. 1995) respectively, included sequence information of all Indian M subclusters in the former, and additionally even some African sequences in the latter case, therefore blurring the expansion time estimate of the central M node in India.
The report is very technical to be read and understood. However, a meticulous reading and interpretation of the same says that Lodhas and Kurmis (It should be read as Kudmis as the same has been misspelled as usual in the report; In West Bengal we have Kudmis and not Kurmis) are the idegenous group originated much before other indigenous groups of Jahrkhand (greater Jahrakhnd which encompasses areas of Jharkhnad, Bihar, West Begnal and Orissa.
Sanjay has added the following which is more easy to understand.
अफ्रीका में anatomically modern human पनपा । जिसको mitochondrial DNA Haplogroup L कहा गया । L mutate हो कर L1, L2, L3, L4...... बना । L3 अफ्रीका से बाहर निकला । बाहर आ कर L3 mutate हो कर N और M बना । N चला गया Europe की ओर । M दो भाग बंट गया । एक हिमालय के उत्तर की ओर से होते हुए पूर्वी एशिया में चला गया और दुसरा आ गया south Asia में । South Asia वाला M बिखरते हुए समुद्र के किनारे किनारे south east Asia होते हुए Australia तक पहुंच गया । सभी जगह समय के साथ mt DNA Haplogroup M में mutation के साथ परिवर्तन होता गया । भारत में भी Haplogroup M में समय के साथ mutation होता रहा और इंसान अलग-अलग ग्रुप में बंटते गए । अभी तक भारत में macrohaplogroup M mutate हो कर M 2, M3, M4, M5, M6, M18, M25, M30, M31, M33, M34, M35, M36, M37, M38, M39, M40, M41, M42, M43, M45, M48, M49, M50 में बंटे हैं । इसके अलावे इन सभी के subgroup भी बने हैं । यहां तक किसी जाति जनजाति नश्ल का कोई अर्थ नहीं है क्योंकि जो एक साथ रह गए उन्होंने एक जाति जनजाति नश्ल का निर्माण कर लिया । इसी लिए भारत में रहने वाले सभी नश्ल के लोगों में 70% में विभिन्न M ग्रुप मिलता ही है । जहां तक भारत में ancient settler के पहचान की बात है तो लोग मान कर चलते हैं की आज जो आदिवासी ST हैं Haplogroup M2 वाले वे ही ancient settlers हैं । पर इस तथ्य को नजरंदाज कर देते हैं की M2 , Haplogroup M से निकला हुआ है और भारत में कई समुह हैं जिनमे Haplogroup M का mt DNA , 85 से 95% अब भी मौजूद है । तो भारत का ancient settler किसे कहना चाहिए? जाहिर सी बात है जिस जाति जनजाति समुह के सैम्पल में mt DNA Haplogroup M सर्वाधिक पाया जाता है । यानि जिनमें आज भी mt DNA Haplogroup M के जीन अपनी पुरानी अवस्था में मौजूद है ।
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